Tom Coster – Psychology

Tag: education

  • The role of Culture in behaviour (HL topic)

    Most people assume there’s a universal way humans experience identity, i.e. their sense of self. Research has shown that culture fundamentally shapes how people construct their sense of self, i.e. their identity; and this plays a role in our behaviour including our emotions and motivations.

    In 1991, Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama published ‘Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation’, a paper that challenged the prevailing understanding of culture’s role in behaviour. The paper proposed that culture fosters one of two ways of experiencing identity and called these independent and interdependent self-construal.

    The theory proposes that in cultures emphasising independent self-construal, i.e. ‘Western’ societies such as the US, people consider themselves as autonomous individuals so that the sense of self is defined by internal attributes such personality traits, abilities, and personal achievements. Success means to stand out, to be unique, and to pursue and achieve individual goals. ‘Being true to yourself’ is a core value in these cultures.

    In cultures that emphasise interdependent self-construal, common in ‘the East’, many collectivist societies consider the self as one of many, i.e. connected to others rather than independent and autonomous. A person considers their identity through social relationships, roles, and group memberships. Succeeding in this culture means maintaining harmony, fulfilling obligations, and fitting harmoniously into social contexts. The question is not ‘who am I?’, rather it is ‘who are we, who am I in relation to others?’

    Self-Construal Theory is compelling because of empirical evidence supporting it. For example, in 1989, psychologist Susan Cousins used the Twenty Statements Test, asking American and Japanese participants to complete sentences beginning with ‘I am…’ Americans predominantly used abstract personal traits, such as ‘I am creative’, ‘I am independent’, but Japanese participants offered context-dependent descriptions tied to relationships and situations, such as ‘I am a daughter who helps her mother’.

    Self-Construal Theory’s predictions extend beyond self-description to behaviour. Heine et al. (1999) demonstrated striking motivational differences. After receiving failure feedback on a task, Canadian students persisted less on subsequent attempts, protecting their self-esteem, but Japanese students persisted, motivated by opportunities for self-improvement rather than self-protection.

    Self-construal can shape everyday behaviours. For example, in consumer behaviour, Americans are more likely to purchase products that emphasise uniqueness and self-expression: ‘Be yourself’ or ‘Stand out from the crowd’ and East Asian advertising emphasises belonging and harmony such as ‘Share happiness with those you love’. Westerners typically prefer items that differ from what others have chosen, demonstrating uniqueness. East Asians tend to prefer popular choices that others have validated, reducing social disharmony.

    Communication patterns often reflect different self-construals. Americans tend toward direct, explicit communication; saying ‘no’ is valued as honest and authentic, but in Japanese communication indirect expressions and contextual cues are used to avoid upsetting group harmony, saying ‘that might be difficult’ rather than ‘no’. These aren’t politeness conventions; they reflect different perceptions of appropriate self-expression.

    Even emotional expression follows self-construal patterns. Tsai et al. (2006) found that European Americans valued high-arousal positive emotions like excitement and enthusiasm, which signal individual achievement and expression, but Hong Kong Chinese valued low-arousal positive emotions like calm and peacefulness, which facilitate harmonious social functioning. Facebook profile pictures reflect this: Americans smile more broadly with teeth showing (expressing individual happiness). East Asians smile more subtly with closed mouths (maintaining social appropriateness).

    American students typically feel comfortable speaking up in class, asking questions, and debating with teachers. These behaviours demonstrate critical thinking and individual voice. East Asian students typically remain quiet, not from lack of engagement but from respect for the teacher’s authority, believing that speaking out might disrupt the collective learning environment or risk making others feel uncomfortable.

    Kitayama’s own research showed that Americans consistently rate themselves above average on various attributes (sometimes referred to as the self-enhancement bias; Japanese participants showed self-criticism, honestly acknowledging weaknesses as areas for personal growth. These aren’t just cultural politeness norms. They reflect different motivational systems shaped by self-construal.

    Perhaps most fascinating, self-construal seems to affect people’s perception and attention. Masuda and Nisbett (2001) showed participants animated underwater scenes. American participants fixated on prominent focal objects like large fish, but Japanese participants focused more on more global/background elements and the relationships between the objects in the scene. This didn’t seem to be about visual acuity; it indicated culturally-shaped patterns of attention and focus.

    Even memory seems to be culturally constructed. Wang (2001) found that Chinese children’s autobiographical memories emphasised collective activities and social interactions and American children’s memories focused on individual experiences and individual attributes indicating that we remember our lives through cultural filters.

    Many parenting practices show self-construal in action. American parents often ask children ‘What do YOU want?’ and ‘How do YOU feel?’ emphasising individual preferences and internal states. East Asian parents more commonly ask ‘What should we do?’ or reference social obligations, for example ‘What would grandmother think?’ These small linguistic differences shape how children learn to think about themselves in relation to others.

    Workplace behaviour can demonstrate self-construal differences. In Western organisations, employees are encouraged to promote their achievements, with annual reviews asking, ‘What are YOUR accomplishments?’ and ‘What makes YOU stand out?’ In Eastern companies, employees often deflect individual credit, attributing success to team effort or organisational support. When Americans receive praise, they typically accept it directly, for example. ‘Thank you, I worked hard on that’. Asian recipients more commonly deflect or minimise: ‘No, it was nothing special’ or ‘I was fortunate to have good colleagues’.

    Zhu et al (2007) used brain imaging to show that Chinese participants demonstrated similar neural activation patterns when thinking about themselves and their mothers, but Western participants distinguished clearly between thinking about themselves and thinking about their mothers, showing different neural activation for each. Culture doesn’t seem to just affect our self-perception and memory; it also seems to shape the neural architecture underlying self-representation.

    Self-Construal Theory helps explain why shame is more significant in some cultures and guilt is significant in other cultures, and why self-help movements flourish more in individualist than collectivist societies, and why collaborative decision-making processes are more effective in some cultures and less effective in other cultures.

    Critics of Self-Construal Theory argue that it creates a false dichotomy, overlooking within-culture variations and individual differences. For example, not all Westerners are independent and not all Asians are interdependent. Modern research suggests that many people develop bicultural competence, meaning they can shift between self-construals depending on the cultural context.

    Markus and Kitayama’s Self-Construal Theory remains important for understanding the role of culture in behaviour by demonstrating that culture is not merely superficial customs and traditions. It can shape behaviour from perception and memory to emotion and motivation. People’s sense of self is not universal; it is profoundly cultural and understanding this helps us appreciate human diversity while recognising the mechanisms underlying cultural differences.

  • The role of Motivation in behaviour (HL topic)

    Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a simple solution to the questions of how we help students understand motivation across all four Contexts.

    What is motivation? That hidden drive to behave.

    Deci and Ryan’s SDT: Motivation stems from three needs: (i) autonomy (feeling in control), (ii) competence (feeling capable), and (iii) relatedness (feeling connected). When these needs are met, intrinsic motivation flourishes. When they’re not met, motivation is hindered. It’s a simple but powerful framework that can be applied to all 4 Contexts:

    Human Development

    Consider adolescent identity formation. Teenagers need autonomy to explore who they are, competence through experiences that build self-efficacy, and relatedness through secure attachments that provide a safe base for exploration. Identity achievement requires all three needs being met, while identity foreclosure might reflect relatedness without autonomy. Most students can grasp why overcontrolling parenting or peer rejection derails healthy development.

    Teenagers need autonomy, competence and relatedness to develop an identity.

    Human Relationships

    Relationship satisfaction directly correlates with SDT’s three needs. Partners who support each other’s autonomy (rather than being controlling), acknowledge each other’s competence (rather than being critical), and maintain emotional connection report higher relationship quality. This explains why co-dependency fails; it sacrifices autonomy for relatedness. Students can analyse their own friendships/relationships through this lens, making the theory personally relevant.

    Learning and Cognition

    This is SDT’s home territory. Intrinsic motivation predicts deeper learning, better retention, and greater creativity than extrinsic motivation. When students experience autonomy (choice in assignments), competence (appropriately challenging tasks with constructive feedback), and relatedness (collaborative learning, supportive classroom climate), academic motivation soars. It also explains why rewards sometimes backfire: because they degrade autonomy. It also explains why mastery-oriented feedback works better than performance-oriented feedback: because it builds competence without degrading autonomy.

    Self-determination theory: It’s ALL about autonomy, competence and relatedness.

    Health and Wellbeing

    Why do people stick with exercise programmes? SDT provides answers. Autonomous motivation (‘I exercise because I value health’) predicts adherence better than controlled motivation (‘I exercise because my doctor said so’). Competence comes from progressive improvement and achievable goals. Relatedness emerges from workout partners or group classes. Students can apply this to understanding treatment compliance, addiction recovery, or their own wellness behaviours.

    Motivation is what keeps us going.

    Smart teaching: Self-Determination Theory

    Here’s the beauty: teach SDT once, thoroughly, then reference it across contexts throughout the year. Students build a cognitive schema that helps them predict and explain motivational phenomena wherever they encounter them. When the HL exam question asks about motivation in any context, they have a robust theoretical framework ready to write about.

    SDT can be applied to all four of the Contexts.

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  • The role of Technology in behaviour (HL topic)

    When the IB Psychology guide lists “the role of technology in behaviour” as a Higher Level topic, many teachers immediately think smartphones and social media. And yes, Instagram’s impact on attention spans is relevant. But this topic offers so much more depth and variety than we might initially assume.

    Coupling AI to brain scanning techniques to predict behaviour… but is AI sufficiently accurate to replace human expertise and experience?

    Start with the basics: brain scanning technology itself. fMRI and PET scans aren’t just research tools—they’re technologies that have fundamentally changed how we understand behaviour. Now add AI software interpreting those scans, potentially diagnosing conditions before human experts spot the patterns. Suddenly we’re discussing how technology doesn’t just study behaviour; it actively shapes our understanding of what behaviour even is.

    Then there’s the everyday technology students actually use. Does relying on smartphones for navigation atrophy our spatial memory? When we outsource our recall to Google, are we fundamentally changing how memory consolidation works? Language learning apps like Duolingo use gamification and spaced repetition algorithms—technologies that directly target learning behaviour. Meanwhile, YouTube’s recommendation algorithm creates confirmation bias echo chambers, reinforcing existing beliefs and shaping political behaviour worldwide.

    Is social media changing the way people behave in relationships?

    But let’s go broader. Does television count as technology? Absolutely—and its effects on attention, aggression, and prosocial behaviour are well-researched. eBooks versus physical books might seem trivial until you examine reading comprehension and retention studies. Online courses use adaptive learning technologies that personalize content delivery in ways a human teacher never could.

    Here’s the historical perspective students need: When Gutenberg invented the printing press, scholars worried it would destroy memory and critical thinking because ‘why remember anything if it’s written down?’ When Edison’s light bulb extended waking hours, social critics feared it would disrupt natural human rhythms and family cohesion. Sound familiar?

    A note to teachers: You don’t need to cover every technological innovation from the abacus to ChatGPT. The goal is helping students think critically about how any technology might influence behaviour—through cognitive load, social interaction patterns, information access, or behavioural conditioning. Give them a framework for analysis and a few solid examples. When exam day comes, they’ll be equipped to write intelligently about whatever technological scenario appears in the question, whether it’s covered in your lessons or not.

  • The Class Practicals

    The Class Practicals are students’ opportunity to engage directly with research methods while developing ethical awareness. The Practicals can also be scaffolding activities for the Internal Assessment. Whatever you do, you MUST link the Class Practical experience with Paper 2 Section A’s 4 questions.

    The primary purpose of Class Practicals is for students to be directly involved in planning, preparing and conducting research studies, in particular an experiment, an interview, a survey, and an observation. The Subject Guide describes in detail what variations of these studies can be conducted, for example a true experiment and a quasi-experiment are OK, a natural and a field experiment are not OK. The Subject Guide also details the ethical requirements to be considered.

    Students should complete 4 Practicals and their experience should inform their answers to Paper 2, Section A’s 4 questions, but this doesn’t mean the students must each plan, prepare and conduct 4 studies. Students must be involved to some extent. They may be involved in a study that’s ultimately an in-class demonstration. Perhaps the students are involved in planning and preparations, or maybe they’re members of an ethics committee or perhaps they’re involved as participants or assistant researchers or data collectors. And perhaps they change roles over the 4 different Practicals.

    The December 2025 curriculum update, any research method can now be applied to any context. In my opinion though, thinking through the logistics and ethical considerations of each method, the original suggestions are probably best: an experiment in the Learning and Cognition context, a questionnaire in the Human Relationships context, an observation in the Human Development context and an interview in the Health and wellbeing context.

    Practicals can be teacher-led or student-led, conducted in-school or out-of-school. Under the Keep It Simple ‘rule’, I strongly recommend strong teacher guidance and in school (in class). The key requirement is meaningful student participation. Students who are participants in a practical gain invaluable perspective to research. ‘How did you feel during the debriefing that your were lied to during the study? The researchers called it reasonable deception – is that how you feel about it?’

    The Class Practicals are good preparation for the Internal Assessment, which requires students to write a research proposal rather than conduct actual research. It’s very difficult to propose an experiment, for example, if you’ve never conducted one. After experiencing a Class Practical experiment firsthand, describing a quasi-experiment’s aim, the participant recruitment process, managing variables, addressing ethical concerns… become more achievable. Through the Class Practicals, students will develop better understanding of research design. If they were involved as participants in the Class Practical, students will be better prepared to write about ethical considerations.

    Whatever practical you conduct, ensure explicit connections to Paper 2 Section A’s four questions. The Practicals aren’t isolated exercises; they’re preparation for exam questions. The experience should strengthen students’ understanding of ethical considerations, research design, methodological strengths and limitations, and data interpretation.

  • Psychology vocabulary

    An often-neglected aspect of teaching IBDP Psychology helping students develop fluency with subject-specific terminology. Words like validity, reliability, etiology, synaptic gap, neurotransmitter, and operant conditioning aren’t just vocabulary, they’re the precise tools we use to communicate complex ideas about behavior.

    The assessment criteria make this explicit: ‘There is accurate and precise use of psychological terminology’ and ‘Psychological terminology relevant to the research methods is used effectively’. These aren’t minor criteria, they directly affect student grades in all assessment components. When students write about ‘proof’ instead of evidence, or ‘sadness’ instead of depression, they’re not just being imprecise; they’re failing to demonstrate the precise and accurate vocabulary that examiners expect.

    Teaching terminology effectively means more than providing definitions. Students must understand when and how to use these terms. Does this theory apply to all cultures or is it ‘culture-bound’? Is this a hormone or a neurotransmitter? Understanding these distinctions demonstrates genuine psychological literacy, not just memorization.

    The payoff extends beyond exam scores. Students who master the subject’s vocabulary think more precisely about behavior, communicate more effectively in their internal assessment and extended essays, and develop the academic foundation necessary for university level psychology study.

    IB Diploma Psychology – The Glossary of Psychology Vocabulary (by Tom Coster) is an essential companion for every IB Diploma Psychology student, providing a clear and concise collection of key terms and concepts tailored to the IB Psychology syllabus.

    Designed to support your journey into the field, this glossary will enhance your understanding of human thought, emotion, and behavior, while helping you master the specialized vocabulary required for academic success and real-world application.

  • How to conduct a thematic analysis

    Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (or themes) within qualitative data, often interview transcripts or text-based data.

    Braun and Clarke’s widely used six-phase approach includes: (1) familiarising yourself with the data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) producing the final report.

    Braun and Clarke’s approach encourages reflexivity, transparency, and detailed interpretation of meaning. Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke are psychologists and qualitative research experts who developed this structured approach to thematic analysis. Braun is a professor at the University of Auckland in New Zealand, and Clarke is based at the University of the West of England, Bristol. Their paper, Using thematic analysis in psychology (2006) helped establish thematic analysis as a distinct and rigorous method. Since then, they have continued to publish widely on qualitative methods, advocating for reflexive and transparent practices in thematic analysis.

    To read more about how to conduct a thematic analysis, and to see a worked example, download the FREE document below.

    How to conduct a thematic analysisDownload

  • Why Research Studies Still Matter in Teaching Psychology

    One of the quiet revolutions in teaching IB Psychology is this: our students no longer need to memorise outlines of 200 or more studies, each with two strengths and two limitations. That’s worth celebrating. It makes our subject lighter, more engaging, and far more relevant. Students can now focus on developing critical thinking, connecting concepts, and applying their knowledge rather than playing flashcard games with endless lists of studies.

    But let’s not forget: research is the scientific foundation of psychology.

    Would you teach ethics in psychology without telling your students about Little Albert and the white rat, Zimbardo’s appalling Stanford Prison Study, or Milgram’s not-so-appalling obedience experiments? Of course not. These are the stories that not only illustrate concepts but also bring to life the ethical debates that shape our subject.

    Would we introduce social identity theory without Sherif’s Robbers Cave study? Could we possibly explain observational learning without Albert Bandura’s endlessly punched Bobo doll? And when we turn to methods, what better way to anchor quasi-experiments and neuroplasticity than Eleanor Maguire’s London taxi drivers, or to illuminate the case study method than Henri Molaison, whose memory loss is legendary?

    The point is simple: research gives psychology its credibility.

    Yes, assessment criteria don’t explicitly require studies by name. Students aren’t graded on whether they remember that it was 22 boys in Sherif’s camp or 72 children in Bandura’s playroom. But to teach any of the IB Psychology concepts with integrity, we must draw upon the research that produced them. Without robust studies and their conclusions, our discipline risks floating away into abstraction, detached from the science that grounds it.

    So let’s celebrate freedom from rote memorisation, but let’s also celebrate the research itself. Studies are not an add-on; they are the very evidence that makes psychology worth studying.

  • A New School Year – Wherever You Are

    Whether you’re in your very first year of teaching IBDP Psychology or your thirtieth, in some ways it doesn’t matter. You’re standing in front of a new set of students. Fresh faces, fresh questions, and—if we’re honest—fresh challenges.

    Same but different.

    Maybe you’re teaching in the same school you once sat in as a student yourself, or maybe you’re on the other side of the globe—Morocco, Mauritius, Oman, Albania. Again, that’s not really the point. Because teaching, at its heart, is about guiding and supporting your students, wherever you happen to be.

    Yes, I know… the year will kick off with a few staff meetings. Some will be useful. Others… well, let’s just say “less so.” If you find yourself in one of those, you could quietly plan a lesson or even play a quick game of chess from the back row. (Not that I’m encouraging mischief, of course.)

    Your first lessons aren’t about ploughing through the syllabus—they’re about setting the tone. Letting students (and their parents) know they’re in safe, well-prepared hands.

    You might kick off with an introduction to the experimental method—perhaps demonstrating the Stroop Effect to show how something as simple as reading a word can become surprisingly tricky when colour and meaning clash.

    Or you might spark a discussion about human behaviour:

    • Why are some people passionately in favour of immigration to the UK, while others are equally passionately opposed?
    • Why do some students show up every single day, while others are unfazed by missing lessons?
    • Why are some people shy while others brim with confidence?

    Or perhaps you want to open with ethical considerations—just a quick, engaging chat about Zimbardo’s prison study or Watson and Rayner’s famous “Little Albert” experiment. You could even take your students into the playground to observe younger children for prosocial behaviours—psychology in action from day one.

    Whatever you choose, choose something that excites you. That enthusiasm is contagious.

    And, you know, take very good care of yourself.

    So here’s to the start of your year—new students, new questions, new discoveries. Wherever you are in the world, whatever your teaching style, we’re wishing you all the very best.

    —Tom

  • Save time: A complete powerpoint collection for the new IBDP Psychology course

    If you’re teaching the new IBDP Psychology syllabus (first exams in 2027, first lessons next week!!!), you already know how much planning, organising, and resourcing it takes to cover everything—concepts, content, contexts, the internal assessment, and exam preparation. That’s why this complete PowerPoint bundle has been created: to give you a ready-made, fully editable set of presentations that match the new Subject Guide and Tom Coster’s IB Diploma Psychology – The Textbook perfectly.

    Visit this page to read more.

    This isn’t just a slide deck or two—it’s the WHOLE COURSE in one place. Sixteen separate presentations walk you and your students through every key concept (Bias, Causality, Change, Measurement, Perspective, Responsibility), every content area (the biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches, plus research methodology), and every context (Health & well-being, Human development, Human relationships, Cognition & learning). You’ll also find dedicated presentations for the Internal Assessment and for exam strategies, so you can guide students from their first class right through to their final paper.

    Don’t even try to do everything

    Because they’re fully editable, you can add, remove, and adapt slides to fit your own teaching style or the particular needs of your students. Want more emphasis on a tricky theory? Less on a topic your class already knows? You’re in control. The presentations are ready to use straight away—but they can be as flexible as you need them to be.

    To get a feel for the style and structure, there’s a free sample presentation you can download and try in your next lesson. And the full bundle? Just $50 for hundreds of hours of preparation already done for you—available as an instant download, no delivery time, no waiting.

    In short, this is about saving your time, reducing your workload, and giving your students consistent, high-quality resources from day one.

    Visit this page to read more.

    A new course doesn’t mean you have to spend hundreds of hours of your own time preparing new teaching materials. Explore our whole site and read about all of the materials we have available.

  • Want to improve your students’ IB Diploma results?

    As DP Coordinators and teachers pore over this year’s IB Diploma results, now is the time to think not just about content delivery, but on how your students are learning. The key to improving your school’s performance probably isn’t more revision sessions, tougher mock exam marking, greater intensity with internal assessments or even more teacher training…, the key to success in school is much more likely to be a shift in student mindset, habits, and engagement.

    IB Diploma Psychology – Success at high school or college, written by a teacher with 30+ years of experience, offers exactly that: a practical, common-sense guide to helping students become more disciplined, proactive, and resilient—qualities that consistently lead to stronger academic outcomes in school and beyond.

    Unlike quick-fix test strategies, this book provides a blueprint for long-term success: attending every class, managing time effectively, building positive relationships with teachers, and understanding how learning actually works. It’s simple, clear, and designed to be implemented now—not in theory, but in everyday student life. This book is practical – and it’s written for and to your students.

    If you’re serious about lifting your students’ IB Diploma results in 2026 and beyond, make this book part of your school’s toolkit. It may be the most powerful change you make this year.